New papyrus from Israel reveals a spectacular criminal case from the Roman empire

Scholars from the Austrian Academy of Sciences, the University of Vienna and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem have unveiled a unique papyrus from the collections held by the Israel Antiquities Authority, offering rare insights into Roman legal proceedings and life in the Roman Near East.

In a new publication in the journal Tyche, the research team reveals how the Roman imperial state dealt with financial crimes—specifically, tax fraud involving slaves—in the Roman provinces of Iudaea and Arabia. The new papyrus furnishes a strikingly direct view of Roman jurisdiction and legal practice, as well as important new information about a turbulent era shaken by two massive Jewish revolts against Roman rule.

The longest Greek papyrus ever found in the Judean Desert, comprising over 133 lines of text, has been published for the first time. Initially misclassified as Nabataean, the papyrus remained unnoticed for decades until its rediscovery in 2014 by Prof. Hannah Cotton Paltiel, emerita of the Hebrew University.

“I volunteered to organize documentary papyri in the Israel Antiquities Authority’s scrolls laboratory, and when I saw it, marked ‘Nabataean,’ I exclaimed, ‘It’s Greek to me!'” recalls Prof. Cotton Paltiel. In recognition of her discovery, the papyrus has been named P. Cotton, in line with papyrological conventions.

Recognizing the document’s extraordinary length, complex style, and potential ties to Roman legal proceedings, Prof. Cotton Paltiel assembled an international team to decipher it.

The team, including Dr. Anna Dolganov of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Prof. Fritz Mitthof of the University of Vienna and Dr. Avner Ecker of Hebrew University, determined the document to be prosecutors’ notes for a trial before Roman officials on the eve of the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 CE), including a rapidly drafted transcript of the judicial hearing itself.

The language is vibrant and direct, with one prosecutor advising another on the strength of various pieces of evidence and strategizing to anticipate objections.

“This papyrus is extraordinary because it provides direct insight into trial preparations in this part of the Roman Empire,” says Dr. Dolganov. Dr. Ecker adds, “This is the best-documented Roman court case from Iudaea apart from the trial of Jesus.”

The papyrus details a gripping case involving forgery, tax evasion, and the fraudulent sale and manumission of slaves in the Roman provinces of Iudaea and Arabia, roughly corresponding to modern Israel and Jordan. The main defendants, Gadalias and Saulos, stand accused of corrupt dealings.

Gadalias, the son of a notary and possibly a Roman citizen, had a criminal history involving violence, extortion, counterfeiting, and inciting rebellion. Saulos, his collaborator, orchestrated the fictitious sale and manumission of slaves without paying the requisite Roman taxes. To conceal their activities, the defendants forged documents.

“Forgery and tax fraud carried severe penalties under Roman law, including hard labor or even capital punishment,” explains Dr. Dolganov.

This criminal case unfolded between two major Jewish uprisings against Roman rule: the Jewish Diaspora revolt (115–117 CE) and the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 CE).

Notably, the text implicates Gadalias and Saulos in rebellious activities during Emperor Hadrian’s visit to the region (129/130 CE) and names Tineius Rufus, the governor of Iudaea when the Bar Kokhba revolt began.

In the wake of prior unrest, Roman authorities likely viewed the defendants with suspicion, connecting their crimes to broader conspiracies against the empire.

“Whether they were indeed involved in rebellion remains an open question, but the insinuation speaks to the charged atmosphere of the time,” notes Dr. Dolganov.

As Dr. Ecker points out, the nature of the crime raises questions, as “freeing slaves does not appear to be a profitable business model.” The enslaved individuals’ origins remain unclear, but the case may have involved illicit human trafficking or the Jewish biblical duty to redeem enslaved Jews.

The papyrus offers new insights into Roman law in the Greek-speaking eastern empire, referencing the governor of Iudaea’s assize tour and compulsory jury service.

“This document shows that core Roman institutions documented in Egypt were also implemented throughout the empire,” notes Prof. Mitthof.

The papyrus also showcases the Roman state’s ability to regulate private transactions even in remote regions. Likely originating from a hideout cave in the Judean Desert during the Bar Kokhba revolt, its careful preservation remains a mystery, and the trial’s outcome may have been interrupted by the rebellion.